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They can also be triggered by volcanic activity or human actions, such as industrial or military explosions. Earthquakes can occur almost anywhere in the world, but most take place along particularly active belts ranging from tens to hundreds of miles wide, research paper earthquakes.
Most earthquakes are small and cause little or no damage, but very large earthquakes, followed by a series of smaller aftershocks, can be devastating.
Depending on research paper earthquakes location of the epicenter, these earthquakes can have particularly disastrous effects on densely populated areas as well as the infrastructure that supports them, such as bridges, highways, apartment buildings, skyscrapers, and single-family homes.
Earthquakes can destroy our built-up environments and the essential systems we research paper earthquakes on for our lives and livelihoods, research paper earthquakes. They also have the potential to cause landslides and tsunamis giant ocean waves that can flood and destroy coastal regionsresearch paper earthquakes, both of which can have devastating effects on people and communities.
The social and economic consequences of earthquakes can be vast, and recovering from them can take many years. Humans have come a long way in their understanding of the causes of earthquakes. The Greek philosopher Anaximenes of Miletus — BCE thought that periods of dryness and wetness were responsible for earthquakes. Aristotle — BCE described earthquakes as the consequence of compressed air captured in caves; his ideas were used to explain meteorological phenomena and earthquakes until the Middle Ages.
Plinius 23—79 CEthe Roman historian and author of Historia naturalis, considered earthquakes to be underground thunderstorms. When classical antiquity was rediscovered by the Christian Occident aroundsignificant parts of Greek research paper earthquakes were merged with Christian ideas. Albertus Magnus —a German scientist and philosopher, supported the study research paper earthquakes the writings of Aristotle and Arabic and Jewish commentators.
His own works made an outstanding contribution to the development of the sciences. Georgius Agricola —a German humanist, physician, and mineralogist, believed that earthquakes were the consequence of a subterranean fire ignited by the sun.
The long-lasting hypothesis of a central subterranean fire, proposed by the Greek philosopher Pythagoras — BCEwas revived in the research paper earthquakes Mundus Subterraneus by German scholar Athanasius Kircher — During the eighteenth century scientists became increasingly convinced that no natural phenomenon was unexplainable, thus an explanation for earthquakes became a challenge for scientists research paper earthquakes the Enlightenment.
The English physician William Stukeley — wrote in his Philosophy of Earthquakes that earthquakes were caused by electrostatic discharge between sky and Earth, like lightning. The most catastrophic earthquake of the eighteenth century occurred inresearch paper earthquakes, destroying Lisbon, Portugal, killing about sixty thousand people, and initiating great debate about the cause of earthquakes. The following year the German philosopher Immanuel Kant — proposed chemical causes for earthquakes.
He rejected mystical and religious explanations and held that the cause is below our feet. The Englishmen John Winthrop — and John Michell — began to reflect not only on the causes but also the effects of earthquakes.
Winthrop, a mathematician and natural philosopher, made the important discovery that earthquakes were waves; this discovery would be revived a hundred years later, research paper earthquakes.
InMichell published a study in which he recognized wavelike motions of the ground. With that he anticipated the perception that would lead to an understanding of the cause of earthquakes.
Another significant step was taken by the Irish engineer Robert Mallet — when he began documenting worldwide earthquake occurrences. He compiled a catalog of six thousand earthquakes from which he was able to draw the most complete earthquake map of the world in Wegener hypothesized that there was a single gigantic continent Pangaea million years ago.
Earthquakes are classified as either natural or induced, research paper earthquakes. Natural earthquakes are further classified as tectonic—the most common more than 90 percent of all earthquakes are tectonic —volcanic occurring in conjunction with volcanic activityand collapse for example, occurring in regions with caverns. Induced earthquakes are vibrations of the ground caused by human activities, such as construction of dams, mining, and nuclear explosions.
For example, filling a reservoir in Koyna, India, induced a catastrophic earthquake in December that caused deaths. Most earthquakes are caused by the movement of tectonic plates, as explained by the continental drift theory of Wegener. Tectonic plates move in relation to each other and along faults over the deeper interior.
Faults are fractures in rock along which the two sides have been displaced relative to each other. An example is the well-known San Andreas Fault in California, which separates the Pacific plate on which San Francisco and Los Angeles lie from the North American plate. New plates are constantly created, while other plates must be absorbed at subduction zones where the edge of one plate descends below the edge of another. Earthquakes, research paper earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain building, and subduction zones are generally explained as consequences of steady, large, horizontal surface motions.
Most tectonic plates contain both dry land and ocean floor. At present, research paper earthquakes, those plates containing Africa, Antarctica, North America, and South America are growing, whereas the Pacific plate is shrinking. When plates collide, mountain chains research paper earthquakes as the Alps and Himalayas arise, accompanied by persistent earthquake activity.
Earthquakes are recorded by sensitive instruments called seismographs. Earthquakes research paper earthquakes different kinds of seismic waves: P primary waves alternately compress and dilate the rock, research paper earthquakes, whereas S secondary waves move in a shear motion, perpendicular to the direction the wave is traveling. From a seismogram, the distance and energy of an earthquake can be determined.
At least three seismograms are needed to locate where an earthquake occurred. The distance between the focus and the epicenter research paper earthquakes the focal depth of an earthquake, research paper earthquakes. The amount of energy released by an earthquake is measured and represented by its magnitude.
One common type of magnitude measurement is the Richter scale, named after the U. seismologist Charles Francis Richter — The Richter scale is logarithmic, meaning the seismic energy of a magnitude 7 earthquake is one thousand times greater than that of a magnitude 5 earthquake. The following examples from different regions provide vivid examples of the kind of devastation earthquakes can inflict on human populations. The 18 April San Francisco earthquake, with a magnitude of 7. The damaged region extended over square kilometers about square miles.
The earthquake was felt in most of California and parts of western Nevada and southern Oregon. The earthquake caused the longest rupture of a fault that has been observed in the contiguous United States.
The displacement of the San Andreas Research paper earthquakes was observed over a distance of kilometers about miles.
The maximum intensity of XI, measured on the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale ratings of I—XII, was based on geologic effects. The earthquake damaged buildings and structures in all parts of the city and county of San Francisco. Brick and frame houses of ordinary construction were damaged considerably or completely destroyed, research paper earthquakes sewers and water mains were broken, including a pipeline that carried water from San Andreas Lake to San Francisco, interrupting the water supply to the city.
This made it impossible to control the fires that ignited soon after the earthquake occurred, and subsequently those fires destroyed a large part of San Francisco. It was not research paper earthquakes that San Francisco was well on the way to recovery.
On 17 Januarythe Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake with a magnitude of 6. The shock occurred at a shallow depth on a fault running from Awaji Island through Kobe.
Strong ground shaking lasted for about twenty seconds and caused severe research paper earthquakes over a large area. More thanbuildings were ruined; highways, bridges, railroads, and subways failed; water, sewage, gas, research paper earthquakes, electric power, and telephone systems were extensively damaged.
Its relative importance as a major hub in Asia declined over the following years, with significant enormous economic consequences. On 26 Decemberan earthquake occurred below the city of Bam in the southeast of Iran, illustrating again the tragic connection between poor building quality and large numbers of victims. The earthquake had a magnitude of 6. The people of Bam were still sleeping when the earthquake struck, research paper earthquakes.
The death toll was estimated at 43, with more than 30, injured andleft homeless. The main reason for the large number of fatalities was the generally poor construction quality of buildings, 85 percent of which were damaged. Even though experts had classified the region as a highly exposed zone prior to the earthquake, many of the residences were traditional houses of mud-brick construction, with heavy roofs. Unreinforced masonry holds almost no resistance against the ground motion generated by strong earthquakes.
Increasing population density magnifies the potential damaging effects of earthquakes, especially in urban areas with high seismic activity—for example, San Francisco. For this reason, anti-seismic building codes are important. Appropriate planning and regulation of new buildings and seismic upgrading of existing buildings can safeguard most types of buildings against earthquake shocks.
One obstacle to adhering to anti-seismic building codes is high cost; this is true particularly in poorer cities in the developing world, and the effects can be particularly devastating. The 19 September Mexico City earthquake, occurred kilometers about miles from Mexico City, but the shaking of loose sediments in the city was much stronger than at the epicenter, research paper earthquakes.
Nearly ten thousand people died, and the city was heavily damaged as poorly constructed buildings collapsed. The earthquake destroyed as many ashousing units and countless public buildings.
Hundreds of millions of people live in buildings that would collapse in a strong earthquake, as happened in the mountainous Sichuan Province of China inwhen as many as 90, people were killed or remain missing, with anotherinjured and at least 15 million displaced.
On the afternoon of 12 Januaryan earthquake with a magnitude of 7. The earthquake occurred at research paper earthquakes fault that runs right through Haiti and is situated along the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates; the epicenter was just 16 kilometers 10 miles south of the capital, Port-au- Prince, research paper earthquakes, whose population at the time was over 2 million, research paper earthquakes.
Aftershocks continued for days, including one a week later registering a magnitude of 5. As of late January the projected death toll ranged from 70, toIt is anticipated that, in the future, more catastrophes with high death tolls will occur. Owing to the rapid growth of many developing-world metropolises in highly exposed regions, such scenarios are distinctly more probable, despite the possibilities provided by modern earthquake engineering.
As ofthe time, location, and magnitude of earthquakes cannot be accurately predicted, research paper earthquakes. Damage and casualties research paper earthquakes be minimized, however, research paper earthquakes, if builders adhere to building codes based on research paper earthquakes seismic hazards particular to their areas.
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Apr 08, · At blogger.com custom writing service you can buy a custom research paper on Earthquakes topics. Your research paper will be written from scratch. We hire top-rated Ph.D. and Master’s writers only to provide students with professional research paper assistance at affordable rates. Each customer will get a non-plagiarized paper with timely delivery. Just visit our website and fill in the Jan 14, · Read Research Papers On Earthquakes And Earthquake Predictions and other exceptional papers on every subject and topic college can throw at you. We can custom-write anything as well! We use cookies to enhance our website for you. Proceed if Estimated Reading Time: 9 mins Write your research work on a true story of a person, who has once experienced an earthquake, describing the most interesting moments. Origin. What are the main reasons for seismic waves and how do scientists explain them?
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